SWI-Prolog Semantic Web Library 3.0
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3 Two RDF APIs

The current‘semweb’package provides two sets of interface predicates. The original set is described in section 3.3. The new API is described in section 3.1. The original API was designed when RDF was not yet standardised and did not yet support data types and language indicators. The new API is designed from the RDF 1.1 specification, introducing consistent naming and access to literals using the value space. The new API is currently defined on top of the old API, so both APIs can be mixed in a single application.

3.1 library(semweb/rdf11): The RDF database

The library(semweb/rdf11) provides a new interface to the SWI-Prolog RDF database based on the RDF 1.1 specification.

3.1.1 Query the RDF database

[nondet]rdf(?S, ?P, ?O)
[nondet]rdf(?S, ?P, ?O, ?G)
True if an RDF triple <S,P,O> exists, optionally in the graph G. The object O is either a resource (atom) or one of the terms listed below. The described types apply for the case where O is unbound. If O is instantiated it is converted according to the rules described with rdf_assert/3.

Triples consist of the following three terms:

  • Blank nodes are encoded by atoms that start with‘_:`.
  • IRIs appear in two notations:

    • Full IRIs are encoded by atoms that do not start with‘_:`. Specifically, an IRI term is not required to follow the IRI standard grammar.
    • Abbreviated IRI notation that allows IRI prefix aliases that are registered by rdf_register_prefix/[2,3] to be used. Their notation is Alias:Local, where Alias and Local are atoms. Each abbreviated IRI is expanded by the system to a full IRI.

  • Literals appear in two notations:
    String @ Lang
    A language-tagged string, where String is a Prolog string and Lang is an atom.
    Value ^^ Type
    A type qualified literal. For unknown types, Value is a Prolog string. If type is known, the Prolog representations from the table below are used.
    Datatype IRI Prolog term
    xsd:floatfloat
    xsd:doublefloat
    xsd:decimalfloat (1)
    xsd:integerinteger
    XSD integer sub-typesinteger
    xsd:booleantrue or false
    xsd:datedate(Y,M,D)
    xsd:dateTimedate_time(Y,M,D,HH,MM,SS) (2,3)
    xsd:gDayinteger
    xsd:gMonthinteger
    xsd:gMonthDaymonth_day(M,D)
    xsd:gYearinteger
    xsd:gYearMonthyear_month(Y,M)
    xsd:timetime(HH,MM,SS) (2)

Notes:

(1) The current implementation of xsd:decimal values as floats is formally incorrect. Future versions of SWI-Prolog may introduce decimal as a subtype of rational.

(2) SS fields denote the number of seconds. This can either be an integer or a float.

(3) The date_time structure can have a 7th field that denotes the timezone offset in seconds as an integer.

In addition, a ground object value is translated into a properly typed RDF literal using rdf_canonical_literal/2.

There is a fine distinction in how duplicate statements are handled in rdf/[3,4]: backtracking over rdf/3 will never return duplicate triples that appear in multiple graphs. rdf/4 will return such duplicate triples, because their graph term differs.

S is the subject term. It is either a blank node or IRI.
P is the predicate term. It is always an IRI.
O is the object term. It is either a literal, a blank node or IRI (except for true and false that denote the values of datatype XSD boolean).
G is the graph term. It is always an IRI.
See also
- Triple pattern querying
- xsd_number_string/2 and xsd_time_string/3 are used to convert between lexical representations and Prolog terms.
[nondet]rdf_has(?S, +P, ?O)
[nondet]rdf_has(?S, +P, ?O, -RealP)
Similar to rdf/3 and rdf/4, but P matches all predicates that are defined as an rdfs:subPropertyOf of P. This predicate also recognises the predicate properties inverse_of and symmetric. See rdf_set_predicate/2.
[nondet]rdf_reachable(?S, +P, ?O)
[nondet]rdf_reachable(?S, +P, ?O, +MaxD, -D)
True when O can be reached from S using the transitive closure of P. The predicate uses (the internals of) rdf_has/3 and thus matches both rdfs:subPropertyOf and the inverse_of and symmetric predicate properties. The version rdf_reachable/5 maximizes the steps considered and returns the number of steps taken.

If both S and O are given, these predicates are semidet. The number of steps D is minimal because the implementation uses breadth first search.

Constraints on literal values

[semidet]{}(+Where)
[semidet]rdf_where(+Where)
Formulate constraints on RDF terms, notably literals. These are intended to be used as illustrated below. RDF constraints are pure: they may be placed before, after or inside a graph pattern and, provided the code contains no commit operations (!, ->), the semantics of the goal remains the same. Preferably, constraints are placed before the graph pattern as they often help the RDF database to exploit its literal indexes. In the example below, the database can choose between using the subject and/or predicate hash or the ordered literal table. 
    { Date >= "2000-01-01"^^xsd:date },
    rdf(S, P, Date)

The following constraints are currently defined:

> , >=,==,=<,<
The comparison operators are defined between numbers (of any recognised type), typed literals of the same type and langStrings of the same language.
prefix(String, Pattern)
substring(String, Pattern)
word(String, Pattern)
like(String, Pattern)
icase(String, Pattern)
Text matching operators that act on both typed literals and langStrings.
lang_matches(Term, Pattern)
Demands a full RDF term (Text@Lang) or a plain Lang term to match the language pattern Pattern.

The predicates rdf_where/1 and {}/1 are identical. The rdf_where/1 variant is provided to avoid ambiguity in applications where {}/1 is used for other purposes. Note that it is also possible to write rdf11:{...}.

3.1.2 Enumerating and testing objects

Enumerating objects by role

[nondet]rdf_subject(?S)
True when S is a currently known subject, i.e. it appears in the subject position of some visible triple. The predicate is semidet if S is ground.
[nondet]rdf_predicate(?P)
True when P is a currently known predicate, i.e. it appears in the predicate position of some visible triple. The predicate is semidet if P is ground.
[nondet]rdf_object(?O)
True when O is a currently known object, i.e. it appears in the object position of some visible triple. If Term is ground, it is pre-processed as the object argument of rdf_assert/3 and the predicate is semidet.
[nondet]rdf_node(?T)
True when T appears in the subject or object position of a known triple, i.e., is a node in the RDF graph.
[nondet]rdf_graph(?Graph)
True when Graph is an existing graph.

Enumerating objects by type

[nondet]rdf_literal(?Term)
True if Term is a known literal. If Term is ground, it is pre-processed as the object argument of rdf_assert/3 and the predicate is semidet.
[nondet]rdf_bnode(?BNode)
True if BNode is a currently known blank node. The predicate is semidet if BNode is ground.
[nondet]rdf_iri(?IRI)
True if IRI is a current IRI. The predicate is semidet if IRI is ground.
[nondet]rdf_name(?Name)
True if Name is a current IRI or literal. The predicate is semidet if Name is ground.
[nondet]rdf_term(?Term)
True if Term appears in the RDF database. Term is either an IRI, literal or blank node and may appear in any position of any triple. If Term is ground, it is pre-processed as the object argument of rdf_assert/3 and the predicate is semidet.

Testing objects types

[semidet]rdf_is_iri(@IRI)
True if IRI is an RDF IRI term.

For performance reasons, this does not check for compliance to the syntax defined in RFC 3987. This checks whether the term is (1) an atom and (2) not a blank node identifier.

Success of this goal does not imply that the IRI is present in the database (see rdf_iri/1 for that).

[semidet]rdf_is_bnode(@Term)
True if Term is an RDF blank node identifier.

A blank node is represented by an atom that starts with _:.

Success of this goal does not imply that the blank node is present in the database (see rdf_bnode/1 for that).

For backwards compatibility, atoms that are represented with an atom that starts with __ are also considered to be a blank node.

[semidet]rdf_is_literal(@Term)
True if Term is an RDF literal term.

An RDF literal term is of the form String@LanguageTag or Value^^Datatype.

Success of this goal does not imply that the literal is well-formed or that it is present in the database (see rdf_literal/1 for that).

[semidet]rdf_is_name(@Term)
True if Term is an RDF Name, i.e., an IRI or literal.

Success of this goal does not imply that the name is well-formed or that it is present in the database (see rdf_name/1 for that).

[semidet]rdf_is_object(@Term)
True if Term can appear in the object position of a triple.

Success of this goal does not imply that the object term in well-formed or that it is present in the database (see rdf_object/1 for that).

Since any RDF term can appear in the object position, this is equaivalent to rdf_is_term/1.

[semidet]rdf_is_predicate(@Term)
True if Term can appear in the predicate position of a triple.

Success of this goal does not imply that the predicate term is present in the database (see rdf_predicate/1 for that).

Since only IRIs can appear in the predicate position, this is equivalent to rdf_is_iri/1.

[semidet]rdf_is_subject(@Term)
True if Term can appear in the subject position of a triple.

Only blank nodes and IRIs can appear in the subject position.

Success of this goal does not imply that the subject term is present in the database (see rdf_subject/1 for that).

Since blank nodes are represented by atoms that start with‘_:` and an IRIs are atoms as well, this is equivalent to atom(Term).

[semidet]rdf_is_term(@Term)
True if Term can be used as an RDF term, i.e., if Term is either an IRI, a blank node or an RDF literal.

Success of this goal does not imply that the RDF term is present in the database (see rdf_term/1 for that).

3.1.3 RDF literals

[det]rdf_canonical_literal(++In, -Literal)
Transform a relaxed literal specification as allowed for rdf_assert/3 into its canonical form. The following Prolog terms are translated:
Prolog Term Datatype IRI
floatxsd:double
integerxsd:integer
stringxsd:string
true or false xsd:boolean
date(Y,M,D) xsd:date
date_time(Y,M,D,HH,MM,SS) xsd:dateTime
date_time(Y,M,D,HH,MM,SS,TZ) xsd:dateTime
month_day(M,D) xsd:gMonthDay
year_month(Y,M) xsd:gYearMonth
time(HH,MM,SS) xsd:time

For example: 

?- rdf_canonical_literal(42, X).
X = 42^^'http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema#integer'.
[det]rdf_lexical_form(++Literal, -Lexical:compound)
True when Lexical is the lexical form for the literal Literal. Lexical is of one of the forms below. The ntriples serialization is obtained by transforming String into a proper ntriples string using double quotes and escaping where needed and turning Type into a proper IRI reference.

  • String^^Type
  • String@Lang
[det]rdf_compare(-Diff, +Left, +Right)
True if the RDF terms Left and Right are ordered according to the comparison operator Diff. The ordering is defines as:

  • Literal < BNode < IRI
  • For literals

    • Numeric < non-numeric
    • Numeric literals are ordered by value. If both are equal, floats are ordered before integers.
    • Other data types are ordered lexicographically.

  • BNodes and IRIs are ordered lexicographically.

Note that this ordering is a complete ordering of RDF terms that is consistent with the partial ordering defined by SPARQL.

Diff is one of <, = or >

3.1.4 Accessing RDF graphs

[det]rdf_default_graph(-Graph)
[det]rdf_default_graph(-Old, +New)
Query/set the notion of the default graph. The notion of the default graph is local to a thread. Threads created inherit the default graph from their creator. See set_prolog_flag/2.

3.1.5 Modifying the RDF store

[det]rdf_assert(+S, +P, +O)
[det]rdf_assert(+S, +P, +O, +G)
Assert a new triple. If O is a literal, certain Prolog terms are translated to typed RDF literals. These conversions are described with rdf_canonical_literal/2.

If a type is provided using Value^^Type syntax, additional conversions are performed. All types accept either an atom or Prolog string holding a valid RDF lexical value for the type and xsd:float and xsd:double accept a Prolog integer.

[nondet]rdf_retractall(?S, ?P, ?O)
[nondet]rdf_retractall(?S, ?P, ?O, ?G)
Remove all matching triples from the database. Matching is performed using the same rules as rdf/3. The call does not instantiate any of its arguments.
rdf_create_bnode(--BNode)
Create a new BNode. A blank node is an atom starting with _:. Blank nodes generated by this predicate are of the form _:genid followed by a unique integer.

3.1.6 Accessing RDF collections

The following predicates are utilities to access RDF 1.1 collections. A collection is a linked list created from rdf:first and rdf:next triples, ending in rdf:nil.

[det]rdf_last(+RDFList, -Last)
True when Last is the last element of RDFList. Note that if the last cell has multiple rdf:first triples, this predicate becomes nondet.
[semidet]rdf_list(?RDFTerm)
True if RDFTerm is a proper RDF list. This implies that every node in the list has an rdf:first and rdf:rest property and the list ends in rdf:nil.

If RDFTerm is unbound, RDFTerm is bound to each maximal RDF list. An RDF list is maximal if there is no triple rdf(_, rdf:rest, RDFList).

[det]rdf_list(+RDFList, -PrologList)
True when PrologList represents the rdf:first objects for all cells in RDFList. Note that this can be non-deterministic if cells have multiple rdf:first or rdf:rest triples.
[nondet]rdf_length(+RDFList, -Length:nonneg)
True when Length is the number of cells in RDFList. Note that a list cell may have multiple rdf:rest triples, which makes this predicate non-deterministic. This predicate does not check whether the list cells have associated values (rdf:first). The list must end in rdf:nil.
[nondet]rdf_member(?Member, +RDFList)
True when Member is a member of RDFList
[nondet]rdf_nth0(?Index, +RDFList, ?X)
[nondet]rdf_nth1(?Index, +RDFList, ?X)
True when X is the Index-th element (0-based or 1-based) of RDFList. This predicate is deterministic if Index is given and the list has no multiple rdf:first or rdf:rest values.
[det]rdf_assert_list(+PrologList, ?RDFList)
[det]rdf_assert_list(+PrologList, ?RDFList, +Graph)
Create an RDF list from the given Prolog List. PrologList must be a proper Prolog list and all members of the list must be acceptable as object for rdf_assert/3. If RDFList is unbound and PrologList is not empty, rdf_create_bnode/1 is used to create RDFList.
[det]rdf_retract_list(+RDFList)
Retract the rdf:first, rdf:rest and rdf:type=rdf:'List’triples from all nodes reachable through rdf:rest. Note that other triples that exist on the nodes are left untouched.

3.2 library(semweb/rdf11_containers): RDF 1.1 Containers

author
- Wouter Beek
- Jan Wielemaker
version
2016/01
See also
http://www.w3.org/TR/2014/REC-rdf-schema-20140225/\#ch_containervocab
Compatibility
RDF 1.1

Implementation of the conventional human interpretation of RDF 1.1 containers.

RDF containers are open enumeration structures as opposed to RDF collections or RDF lists which are closed enumeration structures. The same resource may appear in a container more than once. A container may be contained in itself.

[nondet]rdf_alt(+Alt, ?Default, ?Others)
True when Alt is an instance of rdf:Alt with first member Default and remaining members Others.

Notice that this construct adds no machine-processable semantics but is conventionally used to indicate to a human reader that the numerical ordering of the container membership properties of Container is intended to only be relevant in distinguishing between the first and all non-first members.

Default denotes the default option to take when choosing one of the alternatives container in Container. Others denotes the non-default options that can be chosen from.

[det]rdf_assert_alt(?Alt, +Default, +Others:list)
[det]rdf_assert_alt(?Alt, +Default, +Others:list, +Graph)
Create an rdf:Alt with the given Default and Others. Default and the members of Others must be valid object terms for rdf_assert/3.
[nondet]rdf_bag(+Bag, -List:list)
True when Bag is an rdf:Bag and set is the set values related through container membership properties to Bag.

Notice that this construct adds no machine-processable semantics but is conventionally used to indicate to a human reader that the numerical ordering of the container membership properties of Container is intended to not be significant.

[det]rdf_assert_bag(?Bag, +Set:list)
[det]rdf_assert_bag(?Bag, +Set:list, +Graph)
Create an rdf:Bag from the given set of values. The members of Set must be valid object terms for rdf_assert/3.
[nondet]rdf_seq(+Seq, -List:list)
True when Seq is an instance of rdf:Seq and List is a list of associated values, ordered according to the container membership property used.

Notice that this construct adds no machine-processable semantics but is conventionally used to indicate to a human reader that the numerical ordering of the container membership properties of Container is intended to be significant.

[det]rdf_assert_seq(?Seq, +List)
[det]rdf_assert_seq(?Seq, +List, +Graph)
[nondet]rdfs_container(+Container, -List)
True when List is the list of objects attached to Container using a container membership property (rdf:_0, rdf:_1, ...). If multiple objects are connected to the Container using the same membership property, this predicate selects one value non-deterministically.
[nondet]rdfs_container_membership_property(?Property)
True when Property is a container membership property (rdf:_1, rdf:_2, ...).
[nondet]rdfs_container_membership_property(?Property, ?Number:nonneg)
True when Property is the Nth container membership property.

Success of this goal does not imply that Property is present in the database.

[nondet]rdfs_member(?Elem, ?Container)
True if rdf(Container, P, Elem) is true and P is a container membership property.
[nondet]rdfs_nth0(?N, ?Container, ?Elem)
True if rdf(Container, P, Elem) is true and P is the N-th (0-based) container membership property.

3.3 library(semweb/rdf_db): The RDF database

The central module of the RDF infrastructure is library(semweb/rdf_db). It provides storage and indexed querying of RDF triples. RDF data is stored as quintuples. The first three elements denote the RDF triple. The extra Graph and Line elements provide information about the origin of the triple.

The actual storage is provided by the foreign language (C) module. Using a dedicated C-based implementation we can reduce memory usage and improve indexing capabilities, for example by providing a dedicated index to support entailment over rdfs:subPropertyOf. Currently the following indexes are provided (S=subject, P=predicate, O=object, G=graph):

3.3.1 Query the RDF database

[nondet]rdf(?Subject, ?Predicate, ?Object)
Elementary query for triples. Subject and Predicate are atoms representing the fully qualified URL of the resource. Object is either an atom representing a resource or literal(Value) if the object is a literal value. If a value of the form NameSpaceID:LocalName is provided it is expanded to a ground atom using expand_goal/2. This implies you can use this construct in compiled code without paying a performance penalty. Literal values take one of the following forms:
Atom
If the value is a simple atom it is the textual representation of a string literal without explicit type or language qualifier.
lang(LangID, Atom)
Atom represents the text of a string literal qualified with the given language.
type(TypeID, Value)
Used for attributes qualified using the rdf:datatype TypeID. The Value is either the textual representation or a natural Prolog representation. See the option convert_typed_literal(:Convertor) of the parser. The storage layer provides efficient handling of atoms, integers (64-bit) and floats (native C-doubles). All other data is represented as a Prolog record.

For literal querying purposes, Object can be of the form literal(+Query, -Value), where Query is one of the terms below. If the Query takes a literal argument and the value has a numeric type numerical comparison is performed.

plain(+Text)
Perform exact match and demand the language or type qualifiers to match. This query is fully indexed.
icase(+Text)
Perform a full but case-insensitive match. This query is fully indexed.
exact(+Text)
Same as icase(Text). Backward compatibility.
substring(+Text)
Match any literal that contains Text as a case-insensitive substring. The query is not indexed on Object.
word(+Text)
Match any literal that contains Text delimited by a non alpha-numeric character, the start or end of the string. The query is not indexed on Object.
prefix(+Text)
Match any literal that starts with Text. This call is intended for completion. The query is indexed using the skip list of literals.
ge(+Literal)
Match any literal that is equal or larger than Literal in the ordered set of literals.
gt(+Literal)
Match any literal that is larger than Literal in the ordered set of literals.
eq(+Literal)
Match any literal that is equal to Literal in the ordered set of literals.
le(+Literal)
Match any literal that is equal or smaller than Literal in the ordered set of literals.
lt(+Literal)
Match any literal that is smaller than Literal in the ordered set of literals.
between(+Literal1, +Literal2)
Match any literal that is between Literal1 and Literal2 in the ordered set of literals. This may include both Literal1 and Literal2.
like(+Pattern)
Match any literal that matches Pattern case insensitively, where the‘*’character in Pattern matches zero or more characters.

Backtracking never returns duplicate triples. Duplicates can be retrieved using rdf/4. The predicate rdf/3 raises a type-error if called with improper arguments. If rdf/3 is called with a term literal(_) as Subject or Predicate object it fails silently. This allows for graph matching goals like rdf(S,P,O),rdf(O,P2,O2) to proceed without errors.

[nondet]rdf(?Subject, ?Predicate, ?Object, ?Source)
As rdf/3 but in addition query the graph to which the triple belongs. Unlike rdf/3, this predicate does not remove duplicates from the result set.
Source is a term Graph:Line. If Source is instatiated, passing an atom is the same as passing Atom:_.
[nondet]rdf_has(?Subject, +Predicate, ?Object)
Succeeds if the triple rdf(Subject, Predicate, Object) is true exploiting the rdfs:subPropertyOf predicate as well as inverse predicates declared using rdf_set_predicate/2 with the inverse_of property.
[nondet]rdf_has(?Subject, +Predicate, ?Object, -RealPredicate)
Same as rdf_has/3, but RealPredicate is unified to the actual predicate that makes this relation true. RealPredicate must be Predicate or an rdfs:subPropertyOf Predicate. If an inverse match is found, RealPredicate is the term inverse_of(Pred).
[nondet]rdf_reachable(?Subject, +Predicate, ?Object)
Is true if Object can be reached from Subject following the transitive predicate Predicate or a sub-property thereof, while repecting the symetric(true) or inverse_of(P2) properties.

If used with either Subject or Object unbound, it first returns the origin, followed by the reachable nodes in breadth-first search-order. The implementation internally looks one solution ahead and succeeds deterministically on the last solution. This predicate never generates the same node twice and is robust against cycles in the transitive relation.

With all arguments instantiated, it succeeds deterministically if a path can be found from Subject to Object. Searching starts at Subject, assuming the branching factor is normally lower. A call with both Subject and Object unbound raises an instantiation error. The following example generates all subclasses of rdfs:Resource: 

?- rdf_reachable(X, rdfs:subClassOf, rdfs:'Resource').
X = 'http://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema#Resource' ;
X = 'http://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema#Class' ;
X = 'http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns#Property' ;
...
[nondet]rdf_reachable(?Subject, +Predicate, ?Object, +MaxD, -D)
Same as rdf_reachable/3, but in addition, MaxD limits the number of edges expanded and D is unified with the‘distance’between Subject and Object. Distance 0 means Subject and Object are the same resource. MaxD can be the constant infinite to impose no distance-limit.

3.3.2 Enumerating objects

The predicates below enumerate the basic objects of the RDF store. Most of these predicates also enumerate objects that are not associated to any currently visible triple. Objects are retained as long as they are visible in active queries or snapshots. After that, some are reclaimed by the RDF garbage collector, while others are never reclaimed.

[nondet]rdf_subject(?Resource)
True if Resource appears as a subject. This query respects the visibility rules implied by the logical update view.
See also
rdf_resource/1.
[nondet]rdf_resource(?Resource)
True when Resource is a resource used as a subject or object in a triple.

This predicate is primarily intended as a way to process all resources without processing resources twice. The user must be aware that some of the returned resources may not appear in any visible triple.

[nondet]rdf_current_predicate(?Predicate)
True when Predicate is a currently known predicate. Predicates are created if a triples is created that uses this predicate or a property of the predicate is set using rdf_set_predicate/2. The predicate may (no longer) have triples associated with it.

Note that resources that have rdf:type rdf:Property are not automatically included in the result-set of this predicate, while all resources that appear as the second argument of a triple are included.

See also
rdf_predicate_property/2.
[nondet]rdf_current_literal(-Literal)
True when Literal is a currently known literal. Enumerates each unique literal exactly once. Note that it is possible that the literal only appears in already deleted triples. Deleted triples may be locked due to active queries, transactions or snapshots or may not yet be reclaimed by the garbage collector.
[nondet]rdf_graph(?Graph)
True when Graph is an existing graph.
[nondet]rdf_current_ns(:Prefix, ?URI)
deprecated
Use rdf_current_prefix/2.

3.3.3 Modifying the RDF database

The predicates below modify the RDF store directly. In addition, data may be loaded using rdf_load/2 or by restoring a persistent database using rdf_attach_db/2. Modifications follow the Prolog logical update view semantics, which implies that modifications remain invisible to already running queries. Further isolation can be achieved using rdf_transaction/3.

[det]rdf_assert(+Subject, +Predicate, +Object)
Assert a new triple into the database. This is equivalent to rdf_assert/4 using Graph user. Subject and Predicate are resources. Object is either a resource or a term literal(Value). See rdf/3 for an explanation of Value for typed and language qualified literals. All arguments are subject to name-space expansion. Complete duplicates (including the same graph and‘line’and with a compatible‘lifespan’) are not added to the database.
[det]rdf_assert(+Subject, +Predicate, +Object, +Graph)
As rdf_assert/3, adding the predicate to the indicated named graph.
Graph is either the name of a graph (an atom) or a term Graph:Line, where Line is an integer that denotes a line number.
[det]rdf_retractall(?Subject, ?Predicate, ?Object)
Remove all matching triples from the database. As rdf_retractall/4 using an unbound graph.
[det]rdf_retractall(?Subject, ?Predicate, ?Object, ?Graph)
As rdf_retractall/3, also matching Graph. This is particulary useful to remove all triples coming from a loaded file. See also rdf_unload/1.
[det]rdf_update(+Subject, +Predicate, +Object, ++Action)
[det]rdf_update(+Subject, +Predicate, +Object, +Graph, ++Action)
Replaces one of the three (four) fields on the matching triples depending on Action:
subject(Resource)
Changes the first field of the triple.
predicate(Resource)
Changes the second field of the triple.
object(Object)
Changes the last field of the triple to the given resource or literal(Value).
graph(Graph)
Moves the triple from its current named graph to Graph. This only works with rdf_update/5 and throws an error when used with rdf_update/4.

3.3.4 Update view, transactions and snapshots

The update semantics of the RDF database follows the conventional Prolog logical update view. In addition, the RDF database supports transactions and snapshots.

[semidet]rdf_transaction(:Goal)
Same as rdf_transaction(Goal, user, []). See rdf_transaction/3.
[semidet]rdf_transaction(:Goal, +Id)
Same as rdf_transaction(Goal, Id, []). See rdf_transaction/3.
[semidet]rdf_transaction(:Goal, +Id, +Options)
Run Goal in an RDF transaction. Compared to the ACID model, RDF transactions have the following properties:

  1. Modifications inside the transactions become all atomically visible to the outside world if Goal succeeds or remain invisible if Goal fails or throws an exception. I.e., the atomicy property is fully supported.
  2. Consistency is not guaranteed. Later versions may implement consistency constraints that will be checked serialized just before the actual commit of a transaction.
  3. Concurrently executing transactions do not infuence each other. I.e., the isolation property is fully supported.
  4. Durability can be activated by loading library(semweb/rdf_persistency).

Processed options are:

snapshot(+Snapshot)
Execute Goal using the state of the RDF store as stored in Snapshot. See rdf_snapshot/1. Snapshot can also be the atom true, which implies that an anonymous snapshot is created at the current state of the store. Modifications due to executing Goal are only visible to Goal.
[det]rdf_snapshot(-Snapshot)
Take a snapshot of the current state of the RDF store. Later, goals may be executed in the context of the database at this moment using rdf_transaction/3 with the snapshot option. A snapshot created outside a transaction exists until it is deleted. Snapshots taken inside a transaction can only be used inside this transaction.
[det]rdf_delete_snapshot(+Snapshot)
Delete a snapshot as obtained from rdf_snapshot/1. After this call, resources used for maintaining the snapshot become subject to garbage collection.
[nondet]rdf_active_transaction(?Id)
True if Id is the identifier of a transaction in the context of which this call is executed. If Id is not instantiated, backtracking yields transaction identifiers starting with the innermost nested transaction. Transaction identifier terms are not copied, need not be ground and can be instantiated during the transaction.
[nondet]rdf_current_snapshot(?Term)
True when Term is a currently known snapshot.
bug
Enumeration of snapshots is slow.

3.3.5 Type checking predicates

[semidet]rdf_is_resource(@Term)
True if Term is an RDF resource. Note that this is merely a type-test; it does not mean this resource is involved in any triple. Blank nodes are also considered resources.
See also
rdf_is_bnode/1
rdf_is_bnode(+Id)
Tests if a resource is a blank node (i.e. is an anonymous resource). A blank node is represented as an atom that starts with _:. For backward compatibility reason, __ is also considered to be a blank node.
See also
rdf_bnode/1.
[semidet]rdf_is_literal(@Term)
True if Term is an RDF literal object. Currently only checks for groundness and the literal functor.

3.3.6 Loading and saving to file

The RDF library can read and write triples in RDF/XML and a proprietary binary format. There is a plugin interface defined to support additional formats. The library(semweb/turtle) uses this plugin API to support loading Turtle files using rdf_load/2.

[det]rdf_load(+FileOrList)
Same as rdf_load(FileOrList, []). See rdf_load/2.
[det]rdf_load(+FileOrList, :Options)
Load RDF data. Options provides additional processing options. Defined options are:
blank_nodes(+ShareMode)
How to handle equivalent blank nodes. If share (default), equivalent blank nodes are shared in the same resource.
base_uri(+URI)
URI that is used for rdf:about="" and other RDF constructs that are relative to the base uri. Default is the source URL.
concurrent(+Jobs)
If FileOrList is a list of files, process the input files using Jobs threads concurrently. Default is the mininum of the number of cores and the number of inputs. Higher values can be useful when loading inputs from (slow) network connections. Using 1 (one) does not use separate worker threads.
format(+Format)
Specify the source format explicitly. Normally this is deduced from the filename extension or the mime-type. The core library understands the formats xml (RDF/XML) and triples (internal quick load and cache format). Plugins, such as library(semweb/turtle) extend the set of recognised extensions.
graph(?Graph)
Named graph in which to load the data. It is not allowed to load two sources into the same named graph. If Graph is unbound, it is unified to the graph into which the data is loaded. The default graph is a file:// URL when loading a file or, if the specification is a URL, its normalized version without the optional #fragment.
if(Condition)
When to load the file. One of true, changed (default) or not_loaded.
modified(-Modified)
Unify Modified with one of not_modified, cached(File), last_modified(Stamp) or unknown.
cache(Bool)
If false, do not use or create a cache file.
register_namespaces(Bool)
If true (default false), register xmlns namespace declarations or Turtle @prefix prefixes using rdf_register_prefix/3 if there is no conflict.
silent(+Bool)
If true, the message reporting completion is printed using level silent. Otherwise the level is informational. See also print_message/2.
prefixes(-Prefixes)
Returns the prefixes defined in the source data file as a list of pairs.
multifile Boolean+
Indicate that the addressed graph may be populated with triples from multiple sources. This disables caching and avoids that an rdf_load/2 call affecting the specified graph cleans the graph.

Other options are forwarded to process_rdf/3. By default, rdf_load/2 only loads RDF/XML from files. It can be extended to load data from other formats and locations using plugins. The full set of plugins relevant to support different formats and locations is below: 

:- use_module(library(semweb/turtle)).        % Turtle and TriG
:- use_module(library(semweb/rdf_ntriples)).
:- use_module(library(semweb/rdf_zlib_plugin)).
:- use_module(library(semweb/rdf_http_plugin)).
:- use_module(library(http/http_ssl_plugin)).
See also
rdf_db:rdf_open_hook/3, library(semweb/rdf_persistency) and library(semweb/rdf_cache)
[det]rdf_unload(+Source)
Identify the graph loaded from Source and use rdf_unload_graph/1 to erase this graph.
deprecated
For compatibility, this predicate also accepts a graph name instead of a source specification. Please update your code to use rdf_unload_graph/1.
[det]rdf_save(+Out)
Same as rdf_save(Out, []). See rdf_save/2 for details.
[det]rdf_save(+Out, :Options)
Write RDF data as RDF/XML. Options is a list of one or more of the following options:
graph(+Graph)
Save only triples associated to the given named Graph.
anon(Bool)
If false (default true) do not save blank nodes that do not appear (indirectly) as object of a named resource.
base_uri(URI)
BaseURI used. If present, all URIs that can be represented relative to this base are written using their shorthand. See also write_xml_base option.
convert_typed_literal(:Convertor)
Call Convertor(-Type, -Content, +RDFObject), providing the opposite for the convert_typed_literal option of the RDF parser.
document_language(+Lang)
Initial xml:lang saved with rdf:RDF element.
encoding(Encoding)
Encoding for the output. Either utf8 or iso_latin_1.
inline(+Bool)
If true (default false), inline resources when encountered for the first time. Normally, only bnodes are handled this way.
namespaces(+List)
Explicitly specify saved namespace declarations. See rdf_save_header/2 option namespaces for details.
sorted(+Boolean)
If true (default false), emit subjects sorted on the full URI. Useful to make file comparison easier.
write_xml_base(Bool)
If false, do not include the xml:base declaration that is written normally when using the base_uri option.
xml_attributes(+Bool)
If false (default true), never use xml attributes to save plain literal attributes, i.e., always used an XML element as in <name>Joe</name>.
Out Location to save the data. This can also be a file-url (file://path) or a stream wrapped in a term stream(Out).
See also
rdf_save_db/1
rdf_make
Reload all loaded files that have been modified since the last time they were loaded.

Partial save

Sometimes it is necessary to make more arbitrary selections of material to be saved or exchange RDF descriptions over an open network link. The predicates in this section provide for this. Character encoding issues are derived from the encoding of the Stream, providing support for utf8, iso_latin_1 and ascii.

rdf_save_header(+Fd, +Options)
Save XML document header, doctype and open the RDF environment. This predicate also sets up the namespace notation.

Save an RDF header, with the XML header, DOCTYPE, ENTITY and opening the rdf:RDF element with appropriate namespace declarations. It uses the primitives from section 3.5 to generate the required namespaces and desired short-name. Options is one of:

graph(+URI)
Only search for namespaces used in triples that belong to the given named graph.
namespaces(+List)
Where List is a list of namespace abbreviations. With this option, the expensive search for all namespaces that may be used by your data is omitted. The namespaces rdf and rdfs are added to the provided List. If a namespace is not declared, the resource is emitted in non-abreviated form.
[det]rdf_save_footer(Out:stream)
Finish XML generation and write the document footer.
See also
rdf_save_header/2, rdf_save_subject/3.
[det]rdf_save_subject(+Out, +Subject:resource, +Options)
Save the triples associated to Subject to Out. Options:
graph(+Graph)
Only save properties from Graph.
base_uri(+URI)
convert_typed_literal(:Goal)
document_language(+XMLLang)
See also
rdf_save/2 for a description of these options.

Fast loading and saving

Loading and saving RDF format is relatively slow. For this reason we designed a binary format that is more compact, avoids the complications of the RDF parser and avoids repetitive lookup of (URL) identifiers. Especially the speed improvement of about 25 times is worth-while when loading large databases. These predicates are used for caching by rdf_load/2 under certain conditions as well as for maintaining persistent snapshots of the database using library(semweb/rdf_persistency).

[det]rdf_save_db(+File)
[det]rdf_save_db(+File, +Graph)
Save triples into File in a quick-to-load binary format. If Graph is supplied only triples flagged to originate from that database are added. Files created this way can be loaded using rdf_load_db/1.
[det]rdf_load_db(+File)
Load triples from a file created using rdf_save_db/2.

3.3.7 Graph manipulation

Many RDF stores turned triples into quadruples. This store is no exception, initially using the 4th argument to store the filename from which the triple was loaded. Currently, the 4th argument is the RDF named graph. A named graph maintains some properties, notably to track origin, changes and modified state.

[det]rdf_create_graph(+Graph)
Create an RDF graph without triples. Succeeds silently if the graph already exists.
[det]rdf_unload_graph(+Graph)
Remove Graph from the RDF store. Succeeds silently if the named graph does not exist.
[nondet]rdf_graph_property(?Graph, ?Property)
True when Property is a property of Graph. Defined properties are:
hash(Hash)
Hash is the (MD5-)hash for the content of Graph.
modified(Boolean)
True if the graph is modified since it was loaded or rdf_set_graph/2 was called with modified(false).
source(Source)
The graph is loaded from the Source (a URL)
source_last_modified(?Time)
Time is the last-modified timestamp of Source at the moment the graph was loaded from Source.
triples(Count)
True when Count is the number of triples in Graph.

Additional graph properties can be added by defining rules for the multifile predicate property_of_graph/2. Currently, the following extensions are defined:

  • library(semweb/rdf_persistency)
    persistent(Boolean)
    Boolean is true if the graph is persistent.
[det]rdf_set_graph(+Graph, +Property)
Set properties of Graph. Defined properties are:
modified(false)
Set the modified state of Graph to false.

3.3.8 Literal matching and indexing

Literal values are ordered and indexed using a skip list. The aim of this index is threefold.

As string literal matching is most frequently used for searching purposes, the match is executed case-insensitive and after removal of diacritics. Case matching and diacritics removal is based on Unicode character properties and independent from the current locale. Case conversion is based on the‘simple uppercase mapping’defined by Unicode and diacritic removal on the‘decomposition type’. The approach is lightweight, but somewhat simpleminded for some languages. The tables are generated for Unicode characters upto 0x7fff. For more information, please check the source-code of the mapping-table generator unicode_map.pl available in the sources of this package.

Currently the total order of literals is first based on the type of literal using the ordering numeric < string < term Numeric values (integer and float) are ordered by value, integers preceed floats if they represent the same value. Strings are sorted alphabetically after case-mapping and diacritic removal as described above. If they match equal, uppercase preceeds lowercase and diacritics are ordered on their unicode value. If they still compare equal literals without any qualifier preceeds literals with a type qualifier which preceeds literals with a language qualifier. Same qualifiers (both type or both language) are sorted alphabetically.

The ordered tree is used for indexed execution of literal(prefix(Prefix), Literal) as well as literal(like(Like), Literal) if Like does not start with a‘*’. Note that results of queries that use the tree index are returned in alphabetical order.

3.3.9 Predicate properties

The predicates below form an experimental interface to provide more reasoning inside the kernel of the rdb_db engine. Note that symetric, inverse_of and transitive are not yet supported by the rest of the engine. Also note that there is no relation to defined RDF properties. Properties that have no triples are not reported by this predicate, while predicates that are involved in triples do not need to be defined as an instance of rdf:Property.

[det]rdf_set_predicate(+Predicate, +Property)
Define a property of the predicate. This predicate currently supports the following properties:
symmetric(+Boolean)
Set/unset the predicate as being symmetric. Using symmetric(true) is the same as inverse_of(Predicate), i.e., creating a predicate that is the inverse of itself.
transitive(+Boolean)
Sets the transitive property.
inverse_of(+Predicate2)
Define Predicate as the inverse of Predicate2. An inverse relation is deleted using inverse_of([]).

The transitive property is currently not used. The symmetric and inverse_of properties are considered by rdf_has/3,4 and rdf_reachable/3.

To be done
Maintain these properties based on OWL triples.
rdf_predicate_property(?Predicate, ?Property)
Query properties of a defined predicate. Currently defined properties are given below.
symmetric(Bool)
True if the predicate is defined to be symetric. I.e., {A} P {B} implies {B} P {A}. Setting symmetric is equivalent to inverse_of(Self).
inverse_of(Inverse)
True if this predicate is the inverse of Inverse. This property is used by rdf_has/3, rdf_has/4, rdf_reachable/3 and rdf_reachable/5.
transitive(Bool)
True if this predicate is transitive. This predicate is currently not used. It might be used to make rdf_has/3 imply rdf_reachable/3 for transitive predicates.
triples(Triples)
Unify Triples with the number of existing triples using this predicate as second argument. Reporting the number of triples is intended to support query optimization.
rdf_subject_branch_factor(-Float)
Unify Float with the average number of triples associated with each unique value for the subject-side of this relation. If there are no triples the value 0.0 is returned. This value is cached with the predicate and recomputed only after substantial changes to the triple set associated to this relation. This property is intended for path optimalisation when solving conjunctions of rdf/3 goals.
rdf_object_branch_factor(-Float)
Unify Float with the average number of triples associated with each unique value for the object-side of this relation. In addition to the comments with the rdf_subject_branch_factor property, uniqueness of the object value is computed from the hash key rather than the actual values.
rdfs_subject_branch_factor(-Float)
Same as rdf_subject_branch_factor, but also considering triples of‘subPropertyOf’this relation. See also rdf_has/3.
rdfs_object_branch_factor(-Float)
Same as rdf_object_branch_factor, but also considering triples of‘subPropertyOf’this relation. See also rdf_has/3.
See also
rdf_set_predicate/2.

3.3.10 Prefix Handling

Prolog code often contains references to constant resources with a known prefix (also known as XML namespaces). For example, http://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema#Class refers to the most general notion of an RDFS class. Readability and maintability concerns require for abstraction here. The RDF database maintains a table of known prefixes. This table can be queried using rdf_current_ns/2 and can be extended using rdf_register_ns/3. The prefix database is used to expand prefix:local terms that appear as arguments to calls which are known to accept a resource. This expansion is achieved by Prolog preprocessor using expand_goal/2.

[nondet]rdf_current_prefix(:Alias, ?URI)
Query predefined prefixes and prefixes defined with rdf_register_prefix/2 and local prefixes defined with rdf_prefix/2. If Alias is unbound and one URI is the prefix of another, the longest is returned first. This allows turning a resource into a prefix/local couple using the simple enumeration below. See rdf_global_id/2. 
rdf_current_prefix(Prefix, Expansion),
atom_concat(Expansion, Local, URI),
[det]rdf_register_prefix(+Prefix, +URI)
[det]rdf_register_prefix(+Prefix, +URI, +Options)
Register Prefix as an abbreviation for URI. Options:
force(Boolean)
If true, replace existing namespace alias. Please note that replacing a namespace is dangerous as namespaces affect preprocessing. Make sure all code that depends on a namespace is compiled after changing the registration.
keep(Boolean)
If true and Alias is already defined, keep the original binding for Prefix and succeed silently.

Without options, an attempt to redefine an alias raises a permission error.

Predefined prefixes are:

Alias IRI prefix
dchttp://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/
dctermshttp://purl.org/dc/terms/
eorhttp://dublincore.org/2000/03/13/eor\#
foafhttp://xmlns.com/foaf/0.1/
owlhttp://www.w3.org/2002/07/owl\#
rdfhttp://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns\#
rdfshttp://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema\#
serqlhttp://www.openrdf.org/schema/serql\#
skoshttp://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/core\#
voidhttp://rdfs.org/ns/void\#
xsdhttp://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema\#

Explicit expansion is achieved using the predicates below. The predicate rdf_equal/2 performs this expansion at compile time, while the other predicates do it at runtime.

rdf_equal(?Resource1, ?Resource2)
Simple equality test to exploit goal-expansion.
[semidet]rdf_global_id(?IRISpec, :IRI)
Convert between Prefix:Local and full IRI (an atom). If IRISpec is an atom, it is simply unified with IRI. This predicate fails silently if IRI is an RDF literal.

Note that this predicate is a meta-predicate on its output argument. This is necessary to get the module context while the first argument may be of the form (:)/2. The above mode description is correct, but should be interpreted as (?,?).

Errors
existence_error(rdf_prefix, Prefix)
See also
- rdf_equal/2 provides a compile time alternative
- The rdf_meta/1 directive asks for compile time expansion of arguments.
bug
Error handling is incomplete. In its current implementation the same code is used for compile-time expansion and to facilitate runtime conversion and checking. These use cases have different requirements.
[semidet]rdf_global_object(+Object, :GlobalObject)
[semidet]rdf_global_object(-Object, :GlobalObject)
Same as rdf_global_id/2, but intended for dealing with the object part of a triple, in particular the type for typed literals. Note that the predicate is a meta-predicate on the output argument. This is necessary to get the module context while the first argument may be of the form (:)/2.
Errors
existence_error(rdf_prefix, Prefix)
[det]rdf_global_term(+TermIn, :GlobalTerm)
Performs rdf_global_id/2 on predixed IRIs and rdf_global_object/2 on RDF literals, by recursively analysing the term. Note that the predicate is a meta-predicate on the output argument. This is necessary to get the module context while the first argument may be of the form (:)/2.

Terms of the form Prefix:Local that appear in TermIn for which Prefix is not defined are not replaced. Unlike rdf_global_id/2 and rdf_global_object/2, no error is raised.

Namespace handling for custom predicates

If we implement a new predicate based on one of the predicates of the semweb libraries that expands namespaces, namespace expansion is not automatically available to it. Consider the following code computing the number of distinct objects for a certain property on a certain object. 

cardinality(S, P, C) :-
      (   setof(O, rdf_has(S, P, O), Os)
      ->  length(Os, C)
      ;   C = 0
      ).

Now assume we want to write labels/2 that returns the number of distict labels of a resource: 

labels(S, C) :-
      cardinality(S, rdfs:label, C).

This code will not work because rdfs:label is not expanded at compile time. To make this work, we need to add an rdf_meta/1 declaration. 

:- rdf_meta
      cardinality(r,r,-).

The example below defines the rule concept/1. 

:- use_module(library(semweb/rdf_db)).  % for rdf_meta
:- use_module(library(semweb/rdfs)).    % for rdfs_individual_of

:- rdf_meta
        concept(r).

%%      concept(?C) is nondet.
%
%       True if C is a concept.

concept(C) :-
        rdfs_individual_of(C, skos:'Concept').

In addition to expanding calls, rdf_meta/1 also causes expansion of clause heads for predicates that match a declaration. This is typically used write Prolog statements about resources. The following example produces three clauses with expanded (single-atom) arguments: 

:- use_module(library(semweb/rdf_db)).

:- rdf_meta
        label_predicate(r).

label_predicate(rdfs:label).
label_predicate(skos:prefLabel).
label_predicate(skos:altLabel).

3.3.11 Miscellaneous predicates

This section describes the remaining predicates of the library(semweb/rdf_db) module.

rdf_bnode(-Id)
Generate a unique anonymous identifier for a subject.
[nondet]rdf_source_location(+Subject, -Location)
True when triples for Subject are loaded from Location.
Location is a term File:Line.
[det]rdf_generation(-Generation)
True when Generation is the current generation of the database. Each modification to the database increments the generation. It can be used to check the validity of cached results deduced from the database. Committing a non-empty transaction increments the generation by one.

When inside a transaction, Generation is unified to a term TransactionStartGen + InsideTransactionGen. E.g., 4+3 means that the transaction was started at generation 4 of the global database and we have created 3 new generations inside the transaction. Note that this choice of representation allows for comparing generations using Prolog arithmetic. Comparing a generation in one transaction with a generation in another transaction is meaningless.

rdf_estimate_complexity(?Subject, ?Predicate, ?Object, -Complexity)
Return the number of alternatives as indicated by the database internal hashed indexing. This is a rough measure for the number of alternatives we can expect for an rdf_has/3 call using the given three arguments. When called with three variables, the total number of triples is returned. This estimate is used in query optimisation. See also rdf_predicate_property/2 and rdf_statistics/1 for additional information to help optimizers.
[nondet]rdf_statistics(?KeyValue)
Obtain statistics on the RDF database. Defined statistics are:
graphs(-Count)
Number of named graphs.
triples(-Count)
Total number of triples in the database. This is the number of asserted triples minus the number of retracted ones. The number of visible triples in a particular context may be different due to visibility rules defined by the logical update view and transaction isolation.
resources(-Count)
Number of resources that appear as subject or object in a triple. See rdf_resource/1.
properties(-Count)
Number of current predicates. See rdf_current_predicate/1.
literals(-Count)
Number of current literals. See rdf_current_literal/1.
gc(GCCount, ReclaimedTriples, ReindexedTriples, Time)
Information about the garbage collector.
searched_nodes(-Count)
Number of nodes expanded by rdf_reachable/3 and rdf_reachable/5.
lookup(rdf(S,P,O,G), Count)
Number of queries that have been performed for this particular instantiation pattern. Each of S,P,O,G is either + or -. Fails in case the number of performed queries is zero.
hash_quality(rdf(S,P,O,G), Buckets, Quality, PendingResize)
Statistics on the index for this pattern. Indices are created lazily on the first relevant query.
triples_by_graph(Graph, Count)
This statistics is produced for each named graph. See triples for the interpretation of this value.
[semidet]rdf_match_label(+How, +Pattern, +Label)
True if Label matches Pattern according to How. How is one of icase, substring, word, prefix or like. For backward compatibility, exact is a synonym for icase.
[semidet]lang_matches(+Lang, +Pattern)
True if Lang matches Pattern. This implements XML language matching conform RFC 4647. Both Lang and Pattern are dash-separated strings of identifiers or (for Pattern) the wildcard *. Identifiers are matched case-insensitive and a * matches any number of identifiers. A short pattern is the same as *.
[semidet]lang_equal(+Lang1, +Lang2)
True if two RFC language specifiers denote the same language
See also
lang_matches/2.
rdf_reset_db
Remove all triples from the RDF database and reset all its statistics.
bug
This predicate checks for active queries, but this check is not properly synchronized and therefore the use of this predicate is unsafe in multi-threaded contexts. It is mainly used to run functionality tests that need to start with an empty database.
[det]rdf_version(-Version)
True when Version is the numerical version-id of this library. The version is computed as 
Major*10000 + Minor*100 + Patch.

3.3.12 Memory management considerations

Storing RDF triples in main memory provides much better performance than using external databases. Unfortunately, although memory is fairly cheap these days, main memory is severely limited when compared to disks. Memory usage breaks down to the following categories. Rough estimates of the memory usage is given for 64-bit systems. 32-bit system use slightly more than half these amounts.

The hash parameters can be controlled with rdf_set/1. Applications that are tight on memory and for which the query characteristics are more or less known can optimize performance and memory by fixing the hash-tables. By fixing the hash-tables we can tailor them to the frequent query patterns, we avoid the need for to check multiple hash buckets (see above) and we avoid memory fragmentation due to optimizing triples for resized hashes. 

set_hash_parameters :-
      rdf_set(hash(s,   size, 1048576)),
      rdf_set(hash(p,   size, 1024)),
      rdf_set(hash(sp,  size, 2097152)),
      rdf_set(hash(o,   size, 1048576)),
      rdf_set(hash(po,  size, 2097152)),
      rdf_set(hash(spo, size, 2097152)),
      rdf_set(hash(g,   size, 1024)),
      rdf_set(hash(sg,  size, 1048576)),
      rdf_set(hash(pg,  size, 2048)).
[det]rdf_set(+Term)
Set properties of the RDF store. Currently defines:
hash(+Hash, +Parameter, +Value)
Set properties for a triple index. Hash is one of s, p, sp, o, po, spo, g, sg or pg. Parameter is one of:
size
Value defines the number of entries in the hash-table. Value is rounded down to a power of 2. After setting the size explicitly, auto-sizing for this table is disabled. Setting the size smaller than the current size results in a permission_error exception.
average_chain_len
Set maximum average collision number for the hash.
optimize_threshold
Related to resizing hash-tables. If 0, all triples are moved to the new size by the garbage collector. If more then zero, those of the last Value resize steps remain at their current location. Leaving cells at their current location reduces memory fragmentation and slows down access.

The garbage collector

The RDF store has a garbage collector that runs in a separate thread named =__rdf_GC=. The garbage collector removes the following objects:

In addition, the garbage collector reindexes triples associated to the hash-tables before the table was resized. The most recent resize operation leads to the largest number of triples that require reindexing, while the oldest resize operation causes the largest slowdown. The parameter optimize_threshold controlled by rdf_set/1 can be used to determine the number of most recent resize operations for which triples will not be reindexed. The default is 2.

Normally, the garbage collector does it job in the background at a low priority. The predicate rdf_gc/0 can be used to reclaim all garbage and optimize all indexes.Warming up the database

The RDF store performs many operations lazily or in background threads. For maximum performance, perform the following steps:

Predicates:

[det]rdf_gc
Run the RDF-DB garbage collector until no garbage is left and all tables are fully optimized. Under normal operation a separate thread with identifier __rdf_GC performs garbage collection as long as it is considered‘useful’.

Using rdf_gc/0 should only be needed to ensure a fully clean database for analysis purposes such as leak detection.

[det]rdf_update_duplicates
Update the duplicate administration of the RDF store. This marks every triple that is potentionally a duplicate of another as duplicate. Being potentially a duplicate means that subject, predicate and object are equivalent and the life-times of the two triples overlap.

The duplicates marks are used to reduce the administrative load of avoiding duplicate answers. Normally, the duplicates are marked using a background thread that is started on the first query that produces a substantial amount of duplicates.

3.4 Monitoring the database

The predicate rdf_monitor/2 allows registrations of call-backs with the RDF store. These call-backs are typically used to keep other databases in sync with the RDF store. For example, library(library(semweb/rdf_persistency)) monitors the RDF store for maintaining a persistent copy in a set of files and library(library(semweb/rdf_litindex)) uses added and deleted literal values to maintain a fulltext index of literals.

rdf_monitor(:Goal, +Mask)
Goal is called for modifications of the database. It is called with a single argument that describes the modification. Defined events are:
assert(+S, +P, +O, +DB)
A triple has been asserted.
retract(+S, +P, +O, +DB)
A triple has been deleted.
update(+S, +P, +O, +DB, +Action)
A triple has been updated.
new_literal(+Literal)
A new literal has been created. Literal is the argument of literal(Arg) of the triple's object. This event is introduced in version 2.5.0 of this library.
old_literal(+Literal)
The literal Literal is no longer used by any triple.
transaction(+BeginOrEnd, +Id)
Mark begin or end of the commit of a transaction started by rdf_transaction/2. BeginOrEnd is begin(Nesting) or end(Nesting). Nesting expresses the nesting level of transactions, starting at‘0’for a toplevel transaction. Id is the second argument of rdf_transaction/2. The following transaction Ids are pre-defined by the library:
parse(Id)
A file is loaded using rdf_load/2. Id is one of file(Path) or stream(Stream).
unload(DB)
All triples with source DB are being unloaded using rdf_unload/1.
reset
Issued by rdf_reset_db/0.
load(+BeginOrEnd, +Spec)
Mark begin or end of rdf_load_db/1 or load through rdf_load/2 from a cached file. Spec is currently defined as file(Path).
rehash(+BeginOrEnd)
Marks begin/end of a re-hash due to required re-indexing or garbage collection.

Mask is a list of events this monitor is interested in. Default (empty list) is to report all events. Otherwise each element is of the form +Event or -Event to include or exclude monitoring for certain events. The event-names are the functor names of the events described above. The special name all refers to all events and assert(load) to assert events originating from rdf_load_db/1. As loading triples using rdf_load_db/1 is very fast, monitoring this at the triple level may seriously harm performance.

This predicate is intended to maintain derived data, such as a journal, information for undo, additional indexing in literals, etc. There is no way to remove registered monitors. If this is required one should register a monitor that maintains a dynamic list of subscribers like the XPCE broadcast library. A second subscription of the same hook predicate only re-assignes the mask.

The monitor hooks are called in the order of registration and in the same thread that issued the database manipulation. To process all changes in one thread they should be send to a thread message queue. For all updating events, the monitor is called while the calling thread has a write lock on the RDF store. This implies that these events are processed strickly synchronous, even if modifications originate from multiple threads. In particular, the transaction begin, ... updates ... end sequence is never interleaved with other events. Same for load and parse.

3.5 Issues with rdf_db

This RDF low-level module has been created after two year experimenting with a plain Prolog based module and a brief evaluation of a second generation pure Prolog implementation. The aim was to be able to handle upto about 5 million triples on standard (notebook) hardware and deal efficiently with subPropertyOf which was identified as a crucial feature of RDFS to realise fusion of different data-sets.

The following issues are identified and not solved in suitable manner.

subPropertyOf of subPropertyOf
is not supported.
Equivalence
Similar to subPropertyOf, it is likely to be profitable to handle resource identity efficient. The current system has no support for it.

ClioPatria (version V3.1.1-51-ga0b30a5)